There are a number of different approaches to sociological and anthropological research. When conducting research, sociologists and anthropologists at times face ethical and legal dilemmas and conflicts of interest, these dilemmas and conflicts apply to student researchers as well. Student researchers face the added risk of exposing their supervisors and schools to potential liability in some cases.

The following recommendations are intended to point out some common ethical concerns and to indicate areas in which potential problems may arise for student researchers. They are adapted for from the recommended guidelines of The British Sociological Association, the American Sociological Association and the Association of Social Anthropologists of the Commonwealth and the Social Research Association.

1. Responsibilities of Researchers for Research Subjects

When Sociologists and Anthropologists carry out research, they enter into personal and moral relationships with their research subjects, whether they are individuals, households, social groups, organisations, businesses or governments.

While conducting research for scholarly and academic pursuits is a worthwhile endeavour, it does not provide any justification to abuse the rights of others. Researchers have the responsibility to ensure that their subjects come to no physical, social or psychological harm due to their involvement in the research.

Because research relationships are frequently characterised by disparities in power and status, researchers must ensure that they do not abuse their relationship with their research subjects in any manner, especially in areas of trust, promises and obligations.

Sociological and Anthropological research should be based on the concept of informed consent. This means that researchers are responsible to explain as fully and truthfully as possible, in a manner understandable to the research subjects, what the research is about, who is conducting the research, how the information will be utilised and who will have access to both the raw data and final data. Research subjects should be informed of their right to refuse participation for any reason and at any time. Researchers need to carefully inform their subjects to what level and to what degree the subject’s anonymity and confidentiality will be protected.

Research subjects have the right to refuse the use of any data-gathering devices such as cameras, tape recorders, video cameras, or any other data-recording device.

Researchers must not make unrealistic promises of confidentiality; but they also must not allow any access to tape recordings, films or any other records other than those to people whom the research subjects have approved.

If there is the possibility that research records or materials may be shared with other researchers, the ways in which the data may be used must be explained to the research subjects.

When researchers collect data, make notes, make films, or make any type of recordings they need to make clear to their research subjects, what the data will be used for and who will have access to it.

In some research contexts, especially those involving long-term field research, the granting of consent must be considered not as a one-time event, but as an ongoing process.

Researchers need to be aware of any possible consequences of their work. They need to try and anticipate and prevent any outcome of their research that may be harmful to the research subjects. Even though research subjects may have granted consent, this does not absolve researchers from any responsibilities towards their subjects. This includes intruding into private and personal worlds of the research subjects in a way that they may find disturbing or unpleasant.

Researchers need to fulfil promises made to research subjects in regard to confidentiality, anonymity, and agreements to provide access to the final research report or thesis.

2. Covert Research

The use of covert research raises serious ethical concerns. In most instances, it directly violates the guidelines of informed consent. Students should only undertake covert research after a thorough consultation with their advisor or supervisor.

At times covert research may be deemed necessary as a means to avoid influencing the behaviour of the research subjects, or to gain information on social behaviour that is not normally open to the public. For whatever reason covert research is conducted, it is still vital to provide all the same protections of anonymity and confidentiality. If possible, informed consent of the research subjects should be obtained after the fact.

3. Anonymity, Confidentiality & Privacy

Researchers must strive to maintain the anonymity and privacy of their research subjects. Any personal information collected about research subjects must remain confidential. In some instances, there may be certain forms of information, which are so sensitive that they should not be collected, especially if they expose the research subject to any type of risk.

Researchers should always strive to protect the confidentiality and anonymity of research subjects, whether or not specific guarantees of confidentiality have been made.

Research data must be stored in a secure manner. Efforts must be made to preserve the privacy of the data. This specifically includes removing any specific identifiers, such as distinguishing social traits, place of employment, addresses, or combination of social factors, which would make it easy to identify the research subject.

Researchers should also take care to prevent data being released in a form that would permit the identification of research subjects. Some research subjects possess social attributes that make them identifiable. These subjects should be advised that it may not be possible to protect their anonymity.

In general, individual names or identifying characteristics of research subjects should not be used in data collection or data presentation, unless specifically authorised by the research subject. When names of confidential and/or anonymous sources are used in the draft report or final thesis, they should be clearly identified as being pseudonyms.

Research data (unlike information relayed in confidence to other professionals, e.g. doctors, priests, lawyers), when relayed to researchers does not enjoy any legal protection. A court or a judge may subpoena research data. Research subjects may need to be informed that it may not be possible to protect data from legal attacks.

Research on criminal activity also does not enjoy any legal privilege, whether in Singapore or many other countries. In most countries, prior knowledge of a specific criminal activity is considered as being an accomplice to that crime. In many countries the knowledge that a crime has occurred requires that one report it to the authorities.

In Singapore if you are conducting research about a crime that is going to take place (i.e. if you have prior knowledge of the crime), you are considered an accessory to the crime and may be charged in varying degrees of being a criminal accomplice. If you observe a crime and do not report it you may be charged with varying levels of non-disclosure and fined up to S$8000.

If you are conducting research about criminal activity and you do not have the consent of your research subjects, you may suffer threats or injury to your person by those engaged in criminal activities.

4. Limits to Confidentiality

Researchers need to fully inform themselves about all laws and regulations which may affect or limit their guarantees of confidentiality (e.g. Singapore’s laws of non-disclosure) and to fully inform their research subjects about the limitations of any guarantees of confidentiality that they may offer.

There are unanticipated situations that may arise in the course of research in which information is clearly threatening to someone’s life or well-being (i.e. planned suicides, rapes, assaults or murders). In these cases, researchers must balance the importance of guarantees of confidentiality with the importance of the other principles offered in these ethical guidelines, societal values regarding moral behaviour, and legal requirements.

Activities that are conducted in public spaces, or activities that are conducted in settings open to the public, or settings that are not protected by law or custom are not protected under the principles of confidentiality and informed consent. Subsequently, observations may be made in these settings without the requirement of confidentiality or informed consent of the subjects. Similarly, information available from any form of public records does not require confidentiality or informed consent. However, the researcher should still strive to ensure that no harm or risk should occur to the subjects from which the data is collected.

If you are at all unclear about whether or not any of the above issues apply to your research, be sure and discuss this more fully with your advisor or supervisor.

For a complete and extensive listing of all ethical guidelines employed by the American Sociological Association and British Sociological Association, please consult the respective website listings: http://www.asanet.org/members/ecostand. html and http://www.britsoc.org.uk/about/ethic.htm.

* Special thanks to Dr. Ganapathy Narayanan for his invaluable assistance and contribution in providing information on observing criminal activities in Singapore.