Introduction

The process of systematically planning, developing, managing and evaluating the instructional process is instructional design (ID). Inherent in ID are certain fundamental elements, namely task analysis, performance objectives, learner analysis, media selection, instructional strategies, evaluation and re-examination (Figure 1). The sequential structure of the areas allows instructors to visualise the problems as manageable units.

Figure 1: Instructional design process

The key to instructional design is learner analysis. This element focuses on the diversity of learner characteristics. Together with task analysis and performance objectives, it determines
the resources to be selected and the instructional strategies to be implemented.

How can learners’ affective characteristics be assessed?

Most educational systems measure students’ performances by their mastery of cognitive objectives instead of the affective goals. This is a neglected area because affective characteristics are ‘hidden’, not easily expressed, subjective, imprecise, developed slowly, personal, private and difficult to observe and measure (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Summary of learner characteristics

Assessing learners’ affective characteristics is an on-going process through constantly interacting with the learners prior to, during and after instruction. Because of their general nature, affective characteristics are best drawn informally through non-confrontational conversations, diaries, incidental encounters, one-to-one chit-chats, social gatherings and interacting with colleagues who know the learners. More formal approaches can include administrating a simple questionnaire, group therapy, discussion in support groups, counselling sessions and instructional activities using videos, games, and simulations to determine the learners’ levels of commitment to the affective objectives.

Are affective characteristics ‘taught’ or ‘caught’?

Affective characteristics can be learned capabilities that affect human performances. A two-prong strategy of ‘taught and caught’ is recommended. For affective characteristics to be ‘taught or caught’, ‘performance support systems’ must be first made easily accessible (Biggs & More, 1993). Affective characteristics can be best ‘taught’ in an instructional environment by integrating them into the formal and hidden curriculum. Krathwohl’s taxonomy of affective objectives (Ornstein & Lasley, 2000) is a model commonly used in education (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Taxonomy of affective objectives Adapted from Krathwohl’s taxonomy of affective objectives

The taxonomy is a framework that classifies the affective objectives into specific levels of commitment to the desired affective changes in the learners’ value system (Woolfolk, 1998; Ornstein & Lasley, 2000). Instructors can describe the desired affective changes in the form of instructional objectives. The objectives will in turn describe the different kinds of behaviour the learners are expected to attain. From these objectives, lessons can be designed to include what are to be taught, when and how they are to be taught, approaches to adopt and the forms of assessment to implement in order to gauge the extent the desired affective behaviour has been attained.

Affective characteristics can be ‘caught’ from an informal environment like extracurricular activities, peer groups, field trips, outings, family members, social gatherings and the media. More structured activities can include sharing of success stories, conversational pieces, news highlights, meeting with actual role models, role playing, simulations, using videos, games, the media, case studies, current affairs, personal encounters, autobiographies, biographies and testimonies from invited speakers to depict the desirable choices of affective characteristics.

Bibliography

Biggs, J.B. & Moore, P.J. (1993). The Process of Learning. New York: Prentice Hall.

Ornstein, A.C. & Lasley, II, T.J. (2000). Strategies for Effective Teaching (3rd ed.). Boston: Mcgraw Hill.

Woolfolk, A. (1998). Educational Psychology. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.